Rebellion of 1837

Dannicah S. Blk 2. 3 Rebellion of 1837 After learning about the rebellion of 1837 and constantly taking notes, I realized the rebellion was not successful in overturning the government but it did unite both Upper and Lower Canada together. This was able to take away any differences of the two cultures, English and French. The impact did not happen immediately as intended though. In fact it caused the government to get back at the reformers and concentrate more on their punishment such as transportation, hanging, flogging and deaths for the rebels, instead of working on fixing the colony.You can tell that Canada had a serious political problem that was in desperate need to be improved. When the Chateau Clique and the reformers squared off against each other, the British did nothing to ease tension. They appointed James Craig, an anti-French as governor just to arrest those who criticized the government and brought soldiers to intimidate the French. The French Canadians disapproved of the British democracy and found it very difficult to accept. There were numerous reasons why many French Canadians resented the government.Three important ones were because of how discriminative economically and politically the government was of their language and culture, how they were given unequal taxation, and for their lack in power over the government. Although, this all happened in Lower Canada. The rebellion in Upper Canada was to bring an American style democracy because they, as well as the people in Lower Canada, believed that their government were discriminative against the French. The reason why I believe the rebellion in both Lower and Upper Canada was unsuccessful because they did not have any reasonable impact on any British colonies immediately.To begin with, the Rebellion in Upper Canada failed miserably because of their lack of military experience. Many rebellions were killed during battle and several were arrested. Some even fled to America, they were no match fo r the British. This rebellion would have been more successful if the Catholic Church participated but church leaders advised parishioners to stay loyal to the British. The rebellion in Lower Canada ended quickly. The rebellion in Upper Canada also did not turn out so good as well since the British military overpowered them.Even though Mackenzie, leader of the Upper Canada rebellion, took time to train his rebels and plan, the whole event all just led to deaths and arrest of many patriots. Mackenzie also escaped to America where he gained supporters there. In the end the British government continued to rule of Canada where they focused on discussing major punishment for the rebels. In my opinion, the leaders who led the rebellion of both Upper and Lower Canada were very similar. They could motivate emotions with words but they had no idea how to organize their supporters into affective forces.Eventually, Britain’s ways of administrating the colonies would have to change. John Lambton, the Earl of Durham, a reformer politician, realized the whole cause of the rebellion was the conflict between the English and French. He then proposed that Upper and Lower Canada should be united. In conclusion, the whole Rebellion was not successful as planned since the impact did not happen immediately but when Lower and Upper Canada was united it developed a new country. However, both leaders of the Rebellion returned to Canada eventually and were considered heroes by some and other as troublemakers.

How does Hesiods writing on the gods differ from its supposed eastern models Essay Example

How does Hesiods writing on the gods differ from its supposed eastern models Essay Example How does Hesiods writing on the gods differ from its supposed eastern models Paper How does Hesiods writing on the gods differ from its supposed eastern models Paper Essay Topic: History Hesiods writings date to the end of the 8th century B. C. and as such, are probably the oldest surviving work of Greek literature. His two most famous works are the Theogony and Works and Days. The latter is a poem addressed to his brother, and concerns ethical, mythical and agricultural information. The Theogony is the first epic poem composed by Hesiod, and is a mythical account of the creation of the world, and how the Greek gods were born. Theogony literally means the genesis, or birth, of gods. It deals with personified gods, such as Zeus and Apollo, as well as the gods seen as part of the physical universe, such as the earth, sky, stars and wind. It is almost certain that much of the material in the Theogony was not made up by Hesiod, but was rather part of the tradition of oral poetry, possibly dating as far back as the Neolithic origins of Indo-European myth, or to the Minoan-Mycenaean world and its relationships with eastern cultures. Several near eastern theogonies have survived, and can be compared to the work of Hesiod. However, it must always be kept in mind, that correlation does not prove causation. This means that although we can note differences and many similarities between Hesiod and the eastern parallels, we cannot say whether the near eastern myths directed Hesiod directly, or whether it simply became mixed into the traditional Greek theogonies over time. The two main models from near eastern literature are the Babylonian creation epic, the Enuma Elish and the Hurrian-Hittite Kingship in Heaven which is also known as the Song of Kumarbi. In order to understand the similarities, and therefore be able to see the differences, in each of these three main writings about the gods, we must first outline the story portrayed in each one. In Hesiods Theogony, the first thing created was Chaos, which he sees as a dark, gaping void. After Chaos came Gaia (earth), Tartara and Eros. Chaos gives birth to Erebos and Night, and Gaia gives birth to Ouranos (sky), the mountains, and the sea. She then couples with Ouranos and the Titans are produced, including crafty Kronos1. She also produces the Cyclopes and the three hundred-handers. Ouranos hates his children and so hide them inside Gaia. Gaia asks her children for help, but all save Kronos are too afraid. He arms himself with a sickle, and slices off Ouranoss genitals. The drops of blood from the genitals fall on the earth and produce the Erinyes, the giants and the meliai. The genitals were thrown into the sea, and from the foam emerged Aphrodite. Kronos then has six children with his sister, Rhea, but because of a prophecy that one will overcome him, he swallows them all. On the sixth child however, Rhea deceives him, and he swallows a stone instead of Zeus. This means Zeus can grow up safely, after which Kronos vomits the stone, and the other children. There is then a ten year war between the Titans and the younger gods, which is won by the younger gods when Zeus employs the help of the hundred-handers on the advice of Gaia. The Titans are defeated and are trapped in Tartarus, far below the earths surface. After this, a huge monster called Typhoeus is created from Gaia and Tartarus, and is also defeated by Zeuss thunderbolts. This makes Zeus the acclaimed king of the gods. His first wife Metis is destined to give birth to a son stronger than Zeus, so he swallows her in order to stop the cycle of succession, but she still gives birth, and her daughter Athena emerges through Zeuss skull. Zeus and his other wives then created many other divinities. Hesiods Theogony parallels much of the creation myth of the Near East Kingship in Heaven as found in the Hittite library of Hattusas. The Kumarbi tale shows up in a Hittite text that predates Hesiod by some 500 years. After an invocation of various gods invited to listen to the song, the myth says that Alalu was once king for nine years. In the ninth year his cupbearer Anu took over after a battle. Then Anus cupbearer Kumarbi, who was the seed of Alalu, fought and overcame him. Anu tried to flee to the sky, but Kumarbi caught him by the feet as he rose, bit off his genitals and swallowed them. In doing this he swallows at least three terrible gods, Tessub the storm-god, his attendant Tasmisu, and the river Tigris. Kumarbi spits out what he can, but some gods remain inside him, possibly including Marduk and lust. It is thought that one might have come out through his skull. Tessub also emerges from Kumarbi, and hears of the gods Ea and Kumarbi plotting. He plans to do battle with Kumarbi, but the story is broken. All we know is that Ea becomes angry, and at the end of the song, Earth becomes pregnant and gives birth to two children, and then Ea is happy. The Enuma Elish means when from above, as the myth begins When in the height heaven was not named, and the earth beneath did not yet bear a name,2. Apsu, the river water, and Tiamat, the sea are mingles together, and gods were born inside them. From these gods were born Anshar and Kishar. Anshar was the father of Anu, who was the father of Ea, who was very wise and powerful. All these gods were very noisy, and neither Apsu nor Tiamat could control them. Apsu decides to destroy them, supported by Mummu. Tiamat does not agree and tells the younger gods, who then fall silent. Ea comes up with a plan to cast a magic sleep on Apsu, and then steal his sash, crown and radiance. He ties Apsu up, kills him, and lives on top of him with Damkina, and they produce a son called Marduk. Anu gives Marduk the four winds to play with, but he uses them to make dust storms and whirlwinds, making Tiamat restless. The other gods inside her get annoyed, and try to convince her to avenge Apsus death. She agrees, and eleven species of monster are created for the war. One of Tiamats sons, Kingu, is given supreme power and the Tablet of Destinies. Ea is shocked when he hears of this, and goes out to try and use his spells on Tiamat, but she is too powerful, and he retreats in fear. Anshar then send Anu to try and calm Tiamat down, but this also fails. Ea asks Marduk to offer his services as saviour of the gods, which he does, and becomes king. He arms himself with a bow, a mace, lightning, a net, and his winds, and also created seven more wild winds. He captures Tiamat in the net, and uses the winds against her when she opens her mouth to swallow him. He then shoots an arrow through her mouth, which pierces her heart. Her allies try to escape, but they are all captured and tied up, and Kingu has to give the Tablet of Destinies to Marduk. Marduk then splits Tiamat in two, and creates heaven and earth. He uses Eas help to slay Kingu and makes mankind from his blood. The gods then build Babylon in honour of Marduk, and the poem ends in a recital of Marduks names, and a short epilogue. It can be easily seen that there are many similarities between these three theogony myths. Which influenced which cannot be established, but it can be guessed that the song of Kumarbi, and the Enuma Elish both had some kind of influence on Hesiods Theogony. It is by looking at the similarities between these tales, that the differences can be ascertained. In the Hittite song of Kumarbi, we have a sequence similar to that seen in Hesiods Theogony, in which Alalu has no Greek counterpart, but Anu is parallel to Ouranos, Kumarbi to Kronos, and Tessub to Zeus. Anus name even directly corresponds to Ouranos as both mean Sky. Kumarbi was a corn god, and many scholars think that Kronos was a god of harvest, due to his wielding of a sickle, and the celebration of his festival after the harvest. Tessub, like Zeus, is a storm god. Another similarity between Hesiods Theogony and the Hittite myth is that both Anu and Ouranos have their genitals cut off before going to heaven, and from these genitals more divinities arise. Anu warns Kumarbi about the trouble he will be in, just as Ouranos warn the Titans that they will have to pay for castrating him There will be revenge afterwards. 3. Kumarbi and Kronos both have a number of gods inside them for a while, including the storm god. Both stories also involve deliberate acts of swallowing by the host god. At one point in the Hittite story Kumarbi says he is going to eat one of his children, as Kronos does in the Greek version. Both are given a stone instead, and in both cases, the stone is set up as a cult object. Also, one god seems to come from Kumarbis skull, in the same way Athena does from Zeuss. This shows how closely the Theogony seems to follow the story in the Hittite song of Kumarbi, using similar motifs, and paralleled events. There are several differences between the two as well, although the similarities far outweigh these. One of the main differences is that there is no equivalent character in the Theogony to the character of Alalu, apparently a god of the earth, in the Hittite myth. The other main difference concerns the episode in which there are gods inside the host god, either Kumarbi or Kronos. In the Hittite myth, the gods get inside Kumarbi when he swallows Anus genitals. They are then left inside Kumarbi, waiting to be born. In the Theogony, Kronos deliberately swallows each of the gods, after their birth, as an attempt to undo the prophecy that one of his children will overcome him. Also, the reasons for swallowing the stone seem to de different, although the broken text of the Song of Kumarbi makes this difficult to clarify. In Hesiods version, Kronos swallowed the stone, thinking it was Zeus, but in the Hittite story the storm god Tessub still needs to be born, and so it is a possibility that he swallowed the stone as an emetic aid. After the castration of the sky god we can perceive another variation in the myths. In Hesiods version Ouranos only plays a minor role in the story after he is succeeded, and only gives advice or warning, whereas in the Hittite story, Anu still plays an important part. The religious aspect of the Hittite text seems to be different to that of the Theogony, as the storm god Tessub does not appear to be a proper match to Hesiods Zeus. Hesiod tells us of an invincible Zeus, who wins over both the Titans and Typhoeus, which does not seem to compare to Tessub, in that he also suffers defeat. There are also many striking similarities between the Theogony and Enuma Elish. Both myths begin with a pair of elemental parents that have many children, who remain inside their mother and cause her distress. The father in both stories; whether Apsu in the Babylonian version, or Ouranos in Hesiods Theogony; hates the children and wishes to suppress them, against the mothers wishes. The young gods in each story are struck with fear, but then one of them, the clever god, Ea or Kronos, comes up with a plan to overcome the father. In each story, the clever god is the son of the sky, and the father of the final king. In the Enuma Elish, Ea is the clever god, son of Anu, the sky, and father of Marduk, the final king. In Hesiods Theogony, the pattern followed is replicated, with Kronos being the clever god, son of Ouranos, the sky, and father of Zeus, the final king. Marduk and Zeus share another similarity. Both have to take part in a battle and defeat their massive opponent, and take over their rule as the king of the gods. Both also use wild winds and lightning bolts as their weapons. In the succession part of the Theogony, Gaia gives birth to Ouranos, the sky. The sky is seen as a cover or a roof, which is paralleled in the Enuma Elish, when Marduk cuts Tiamat in two and One half of her he established as a covering for heaven4 The same method must be used to find the differences between the Enuma Elish and the Theogony, as was used to find the dissimilarities between Hesiod and the Hittite myths. In looking at the similarities, the differences can be seen. The main difference is obviously the fact that the Enuma Elish is not actually a theogony, in that it does not attempt to give a complete genealogy of the gods, unlike in Hesiod. In the Theogony, after Gaia gives birth to Ouranos, she produces the mountains, however in the Enuma Elish, Marduk creates the mountains from Tiamats udder. In the Enuma Elish, Apsu seems to be compared to Ouranos, as the bad parent who wishes to destroy his children. However, although Tiamat does not agree with Apsu, she remains fairly neutral at first, whereas Gaia encourages and helps her son Kronos come up with a plan to get revenge on Ouranos. After revenge has been brought about on Apsu and Ouranos by Ea and Kronos, respectively, we see another difference between the texts, as Ea is a good father to Marduk, and helps him rise to power, whereas Kronos clashes with his son Zeus, and is by no means a good parent like Ea. The final main difference between the Enuma Elish and the Theogony is that at the end of the Enuma Elish, Marduk is praised, by the recital of all fifty of his names, whereas in the Theogony, although many lists of names do appear, the list at the end is not the names of Zeus but is a description of his wives, and the children produced to make the well known Greek Pantheon. Another difference is that in both the song of Kumarbi and the Theogony, there is some kind of castration of the father god, but in the Enuma Elish there is no such theme as Apsu is killed, not castrated. The castration of Ouranos in the Theogony seems to represent the separation of Heaven and Earth, which were previously together. There does not appear to be any similar significance placed on this act in the Kumarbi myth, and the Enuma Elish does not even have a comparable act, let alone a shared significance. Another detail shared by the song of Kumarbi and the Theogony is that of conflict of the final king with his father. In the Enuma Elish, Marduks conflict is not with his father, but with Tiamat and Kingu. There are several other differences between Hesiods writing on the gods and its supposed eastern models. One of these variations is seen at the start of the Theogony, in which Hesiod composed a hymn to the muses. The muses are purely Greek figures, with no eastern parallels, so have no counterpart in either the song of Kumarbi or the Enuma Elish. The succession myth near the beginning of the Theogony begins with the cosmogony, which also does not appear to be modelled on any eastern myth, and neither does the birth of Aphrodite, as her birth from the foam seems to be a Greek concept. It is obvious that there are many similarities between Hesiods writing on the gods and the similar eastern texts, but the extent of the differences makes it difficult to see which myth influenced which, and we simply have to accept that there are many overlapping, but different, theogonies in the ancient world.

Understanding the Meaning of the French Verb Chercher

Understanding the Meaning of the French Verb Chercher Chercher is a regular -ER verb and means to look for. Chercher is commonly used like its English counterpart, but there are a few aspects that make it a little tricky. This lesson explains which verb mood to use with chercher, the meaning of chercher followed by an infinitive, and a few essential expressions with chercher. Meaning Chercher means to look/search for when its followed by a noun. The meaning of for is built into the verb itself, so it should never followed by the preposition pour.Que cherches-tu  ?What are you looking for?Je cherche mes clà ©sIm looking for my keysIl cherche une nouvelle voitureHes looking for a new car Chercher and a Verb When chercher is followed by a verb, it means to try or to attempt and must be followed by the preposition :Je cherche comprendre la situationIm trying to understand the situationQuest-ce que tu cherches faire  ?What are you trying to do? Chercher and Verb Moods Chercher is a rather unusual verb, in that it can be followed by any of three verb moods, with a subtle difference in meaning between each one. This occurs in the construction chercher indefinite pronoun verb: Chercher and IndicativeIn this construction, you know that the person or thing exists and youre trying to find him/it:Je cherche quelquun qui peut maiderIm looking for someone who can help meJe cherche lhomme qui connaà ®t mes parentsIm looking for the man who knows my parentsJe cherche quelque chose qui peut le faireIm looking for something that can do itJe cherche une maison verte qui est en centre villeIm looking for a green house downtown (it belongs to my brother)Chercher and subjunctiveThe subjunctive indicates in French either that youre not sure the person or thing exists, or that youre not sure youll be able to find him/it. Unfortunately, this distinction does not exist in English, unless you add some additional words:Je cherche quelquun qui puisse maiderIm looking for someone who can (might be able to) help meJe cherche un homme qui connaisse mes parentsIm looking for a man who knows (might know) my parentsJe cherche quelque chose qui puisse le faireIm looking for somethin g that can (might be able to) do itJe cherche une maison verte qui soit en centre villeIm looking for a green house downtown (that may or may not exist)Chercher and ConditionalWith the conditional, you expressing hope about existence of the person or thing and your dream of finding him/it.Je cherche quelquun qui pourrait maiderIm looking for someone who can help meJe cherche un homme qui connaà ®trait mes parentsIm looking for a man who might know my parents (I hope there is someone)Je cherche quelque chose qui pourrait le faireIm looking for something that can do itJe cherche une maison verte qui serait en centre villeIm looking for a green house downtown (I really want to buy a house like that) Expressions With Chercher Aller chercher, to fetch, to go and getChercher midi 14 heures, to complicate the issueChercher la petite bà ªte, to split hairs Conjugations Present tense:je cherchetu  cherchesil cherchenous  cherchonsvous  cherchezils  cherchent

Discussion 5 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion 5 - Research Paper Example Pain medication usage should be carefully monitored to prevent overuse, abuse, and the possibility of addiction in both groups. The control group patients especially should be watched for the necessity of a referral to other pain management methods. Pain research studies also have the possibility of issues with informed consent due to a confounding of clinical treatment with research, which may be an issue with this study. Patients may join a pain study with the intent of accessing treatment or having their pain taken seriously. This reduces their ability to truly consent to the research (Wasan et al., 2009). A separate ethical issue that is not as relevant to the study at hand but is related to the ethics of pain research is the availability of pain management medications to all study participants regardless of the group they have been placed in for the research purposes (Drummond, 2009). Research considerations specific to the community involved also exist. The researcher must be a ware of the culture of the people they are studying and the effects this has on etiquette in that culture, to avoid offending the research subjects or contaminating their results. Cross-cultural researchers must also be careful to understand the heterogenity of a foreign culture, and to interpret their findings appropriately.

Information Management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Information Management - Case Study Example USS's major problems were evident in its order taking process. The orders were manual, imprecise and filled with errors; there was no coherence among the different processors as they had their own tracking and order system. There fore USS was unable to follow each order as it was processed and delivered. The communication system employed between the different processors was a dialup system meaning that data processing wasted a lot of time, invariably forcing the company to hold large inventory, increasing its production cost. All such problems made USS uncompetitive in face of other producers such as POSCO, which was recently setup with the latest technologies. To fix these problems USS took rapid steps to improve their production system. First of all, they provided their customers to place theirs order online specifying the product, quantity, price, composition, size, thickness, and even delivery date for their orders. The software was developed so as to allow the customer to be able to see the cost as well as the delivery dates of their order, to allow them to plan accordingly for their business. It also allowed for messages from different processors to be translated much more quickly and more efficiently. USS also connected DecisionExpress software from LiveCapital for customers which reduced its uncollectible debts. To further improve the accuracy of the order USS incorporated several other soft wares such as order fulfillment and later i2 Technologies. They also introduced soft wares such as iTrac to keep track of their shipments and Mechanical Item Generation System to regenerate orders for repeat customers. USS also setup a subsidia ry USS Engineers and Consultants, to sell these soft wares to assist other companies. To maintain its competitive advantage they only provide soft wares which are a version older than their current software (Bratislava, 2003). Results and Business benefits In 1996, when USS faced a disastrous situation of losing Ford Motor, USS identified that, in face of future competition computerization of the production system was a necessity. This direction allowed USS to be more efficient and more profitable. After the implementation of the software system USS required 3 work hours to produce a ton of steel, as compared to 4 hours in Germany and 4.8 hours in POSCO. Hence, USS was able to greatly benefit from strong economic conditions by supplying steel to United States, China and other countries (Michael Erman - 2007). Conclusion The progress of U.S. Steel depends on the world demand for their products i.e. steel. As witness from the world wide economic shock, demand for steel and other essential construction material has plummet. Widespread closer of factories has significantly halted further investments, resulting in drastic drops of steel prices. USS has invested great sum of financial capital in refining their production cycle but in current times it will be very difficult to gain

The Prophet Muhammad Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Prophet Muhammad - Essay Example Muhammad’s Uncle took and grandfather took care of Muhammad. As a young child, Attwell insists that Muhammad usually suffered from seizure fits. During the fits, Muhammad mentioned receiving voices from heaven and heavenly visions (Attwell, 2007). Attwell prescribes some tribes described the young boy, Muhammad, as demon-possessed (2007). Growing up, Muhammad learned the teachings of the Jewish religion and the Christian Church. Consequently, some of the two religions’ teachings were incorporated in the Koran. The Koran teaches that Jesus Christ is a prophet, just like Moses. Growing up, Muhammad prayed to 350 various gods, including the Moon God, Al-lah. The author proposes that Muhammad’s knowledge of Jewish and Christian teachings of the Angel Gabriel visit (Attwell, 2007). Consequently, Prophet Muhammad espoused that Angel Gabriel visited him in Mount Hira, after marrying the 40 year old wealthy widow, Khadijah. Confused about receiving visions, Khadijah and his relatives convinced Muhammad that they were real visions. The author, insist that this situation casts doubts on authenticity as a prophet (Attwell, 2007). Gahl Eden Sasson insists Muhammad insists he quarreled with Angel Gabriel when he was instructed to recite and surrender to the will of God (2008). However, Angel Gabriel â€Å"the angel overwhelmed me in his embrace until he had reached the limits of my endurance. It took a bear hug and some wrestling moves o the part of the archangel to get the Aries (Muhammad) to submit to God’s will (Sasson, 2008 p.124).† Muhammad also mentions that he met Adam in the first heaven and Jesus and John the Baptist in the second heaven, when Angel Gabriel brought him to visit heaven (Spencer, 2007). In fact, Lionel Attwill’s biased resolution indicates Muhammad’s unstable and mentally disturbed condition, magnified by his continued fasting and meditation to receive visions is reminiscent of schizoid delusions (Attw ell, 2007). The author insists that the scripture depicts Angel Gabriel as reassuring Mirriyam, mother of Yahsua by telling her â€Å"Hail, O woman richly blessed The Yahweh is with you. Do not be afraid for you have found favor with Yahweh† (Attwell, 2007; p. 260). The author insists that Angel Gabriel never hugged or squeeze the lady until she thought she was going to die and leaving her cold and doubting her vision and eager to take her own life, because of the Angel Gabriel visit. Being an illiterate all his life, the author insists that Muhammad did not write the Koran (Attwell, 2007). After Muhammad’s death, his followers wrote the Koran from memory and hearsay. The author further states that the Koran verse stating Muhammad was â€Å"escorted to the seven heavens on a white horse to the temple mount in Jerusalem is a myth without any evidence (Attwell, 2007, p.261)†. Likewise, the author insists that Muhammad assimilated prayer to Allah, the pagan religio n’s moon god, into the Islam religion. The author further states that there is no record of Muhammad curing the sick, saving the sight of the blind people, casting out demons, or any other miracles, like the other prophets mentioned in Christian and Jewish scriptures, including Jesus and Moses. Further, Goldschmidt proposed Muhammad was a liar. Initially, he instructed all Muslims to avoid praying to idols or images. However, to gain the favor of the current Meccan leaders, Muhammad made a 180 degree religious policy shift. To espouse increasing the spread of the

The relationship between verbal and non-verbal behaviour

The relationship between verbal and non-verbal behaviour The most promising research methodology for studying the relationship between nonverbal and verbal behaviour Three decades ago there was practically no scientific work done on nonverbal behaviour, except some rare cases of research. However, nowadays research on the relation between nonverbal and verbal behaviour seems to be widespread across different disciplines such as clinical, social or linguistic psychology. This is mirrored by the fact that fundamental studies and achievements have been attained within this field of research. The incredible fast speed of books being published and journal articles being written about body language and actual language reflects both the high amount of interest of the general public and scientists into this area and the great engagement and devotion of researchers involved (Rimà ©, 1985). The present brief paper will focus on presenting research methodologies which have proved to be most promising for the investigation of non-linguistic and linguistic speech. One particular research methodology cannot be pointed out as currently there are different vali d and reliable ways of investigating into this matter. Before outlining possible methodologies for investigating the speech, body language relationship it is useful to consider the study field’s research history. It was Charles Darwin (1872) who pioneered hundred years ago in writing about unconsciously processed non-linguistic communication and in outlining the particular emotional nonverbal expressions and reactions of the human and animal body. Surprisingly, Darwin was back then certain about the now acknowledged fact that emotional body responses stem from the nervous system’s activity and are operating inside the unconscious awareness of mammals. He also observed that emotional expressions evolved due to the aim of species to survive through increasing group collectivism and guarding the offspring from enemies. Additionally, he promoted that a wide number of the nonverbal expressions of emotions were innate and not learned. This theory found supported by observations of children born blind who socially interact through clapping, smiling and laughing in spite of the fact they cannot perceive the reactions of others. The observation of animals, however demonstrated that there are di fferent kinds of nonverbal expressions which accompany language with some being semantic content while others target at evoking appropriate nonverbal and verbal responses in others (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1980). The friendly smile of humans has, for instance, been found to be a potential control mechanism against aggressive behaviours in others by being a potential invitation for direct social interaction. Face-to-face eye contact, on the other hand, often results in aggressive behaviour since it is perceived as a threat. One can already realise that with the help of the above mentioned findings the relationship between body language and actual language can be scientifically analysed simply by observing species interact (Pally, 2001). The actual scientific interest into this topic, however, commenced with the beginning of the 20th century, and with having a heavy focus on facial expressions. Anthropologists came to the conclusion that nonverbal communication does not appear by chance but is both learned like a language and while language is learned. Sapir (1949) for instance noted that one reacts to others’ body language â€Å"in accordance with an elaborate code that is written nowhere, known by none, and understood by all† (p. 533). Nonetheless, did not make any systematic or scientific efforts in order to enlighten the relationship between linguistic and non-linguistic â€Å"speech† any further. Ekman (1975), Scheflen (1964, 1972, 1973), Hall (1966), were among those scientists who began with scientific research into body language. As a matter of fact, their effort was not valued by many but received with utter criticism and mockery. Since then, however, some accepted methodologies have bee n devised in order to investigate the relationship between speech and nonverbal communication and Davis (1971), for example, wrote that, in fact, psychiatry, ethology, psychology, anthropology and sociology are the five disciplines dealing nowadays with non-linguistic communication. She noted as well that those interested in the study of body motion (kinesics) usually prefer the so-called systems approach over others as â€Å"communication cannot be studied a unit at a time† but it â€Å"is an integrated system† that â€Å"must be analysed as a whole†. Therefore, one can conclude again that the way of observing humans or animals in naturalistic or experimental settings is an effective approach to decide over the relationship between spoken language and body language (Sielski, 1979). Cheney and Seyfarth’s (1990) naturalistic experiments can serve as support for this notion as they successfully investigated monkeys in their natural habitat and demonstrated that a monkey’s specific alarming vocal call triggers the fleeing of peers and thus implies that the behavioural reaction is related to the situational and not semantic context of the alarm signal. Dixon and colleagues’ (1989) observations on humans, can serve as another support for the fact that through simply observing and analysing how individuals act and react verbally and nonverbally one can come to scientifically sound conclusions. They found that body movements signalling discomfort and distress are often aimed at provoking comfort eliciting behaviours in others (Pally, 2001). Another stem of research concentrates on the relation between neuronal brain activity and nonverbal-verbal communication. It has been found, with the help of neuroscience, for example that both the tendency of mother’s and their children to maintain stability (homeostasis) and a majority of their social interaction develops through nonverbal communication. Limbic components of the brain mediate the initiation and influence of nonverbal cues while manipulating, the autonomous nervous system, neurotransmitters, and hormone levels. As a consequence since the delivery of a child, the mother nonverbally interacts with her offspring through all senses and sensory systems (tactile, olfactory, visual, motor, and auditory systems). Language becomes inextricably linked to nonverbal cues as is developed and integrated within the manifested nonverbal communication rituals, rules and habits of mother-infant interaction. Later on, the body language becomes, in fact, more sophisticated and develops parallel to actual language (Sigman Ruskin, 1999). In addition to that, the neurological based methodology successfully demonstrated with the help of patients suffering from brain lesions that the right hemisphere is designed for nonverbal communication whereas speech and verbal communication can be attributed to the left brain hemisphere. Henry (1993), for example, revealed that individuals suffering from impaired right brain hemispheres could not anymore decode nonverbal cues while patients suffering from strokes in the left hemisphere could not anymore articulate themselves verbally. Ekman (1990, 1993, 1997) is another well-known researcher who utilised the so-called Facial Action Coding System (FACS) in order to record and analyse facial expressions and movements through the objective and unobtrusive. The FACS was only recently (Ekman, 1994; Ekman et al., 2002) updated and can be described as the successor of the objective but intrusive electromyography technique which was used by Izard (1979, 1982). There are other widely accept ed facial expression recording devices such as Katsikitis Pilowsky’s (1988) FACEM, which monitors facial expressions with the help of twelve different distances between key points on the face. The most advance laboratory based work on nonverbal expressions was, however, conducted by Reisenzein (2000) who successfully minimised preceding technical limitations and problems and investigated the consistency of 4 elements of surprise such as participants’ facial expression, self-report of surprise, cognitive appraisal of the stimulus as unexpected, and reaction time to surprise (Russell et al., 2003). Hence, studies on nonverbal communication are nowadays managed by using more and more sophisticated investigation techniques. As a matter of fact, advancement in discovering scientifically grounded relationships between one’s speech and body language are strongly correlated to the status of progress and perfection of the methods utilised for assessing, analysing and recording behaviours of interest. Consequently, usage of coders, observers, decoders and raters, are inevitable components in the study of nonverbal behaviours (Fichten et al, 1992). Therefore, there is great emphasis on making sure that the appropriate research methodology is applied and researchers are nowadays required to be technical experts in filming, videotaping and audio-taping of participants. Most researchers within this field agree that in order to successfully investigate the interactive nonverbal and verbal communication one must either use naturalistic or ethological approaches. As a consequence and as a downside, the researcher is often doomed to watch or listen carefully for an incredible amount of hours recorded material again and again before an objective conclusion can be made about the relationship between language and body language. Many compare this tiresome approach to sculpturing as one cannot present the whole block of recorded material in the end but must mould and compress the analysed info rmation into a half an hour presentation or a brief journal article (Rimà ©, 1985). In sum, influential researchers like Rimà © (1985) believe that body language is neither depending on nor complementing verbal utterance but both represent an entity which utilise analogue, parallel and multiple channels in the process of expression. Hence, film material consisting of conversations between two or more individuals are preferably used for studies as it is one of the only ways of analysing the relationship between nonverbal and verbal behaviour together and in relation to each other. REFERENCES Cheney, D. Seyfarth, R. (1990). How monkeys see the world. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Darwin, C., 1872. Origin of Species, Sixth Edition. London: Senate. Davis, F. (1973). Inside Intuition: What we know about nonverbal communication. New York: McGraw-Hill. Dixon A. H., Fisch, H. V., Huber C. Wasler, A. (1989), Ethologic studies in animals and man: their use in psychiatry. Pharmacopsychiatry, 22:44–50. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1980), Strategies of social interaction. 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